Breastfeeding vs Formla Feeding Essay

Parents-to-be have a lot of things on their plate. One of those many things that parents should worry about is what their child is going to consume. The choice to either breastfeed or formula feed should be the main thing on an expectant mother’s mind far before the baby is born. The nutrition a baby takes in from milk for the first year of life is very valuable for a baby’s growth and health. The choice of breastfeeding or formula feeding should be looked at and thought about deeply before deciding a nutritional plan that will alter a child’s life forever. Furthermore, these choices will also affect the parent’s life. The main aspiration for this essay is to contrast the health benefits, cost, and convenience of breastfeeding as opposed to formula feeding. The first important difference between breast and formula feeding is the health benefits. Every time a healthy woman breastfeeds her baby, she is passing on natural antibodies and vitamins that has been known to keep the baby healthy and strengthen the newborn’s immune system. The immune system assists in fighting most infections and diseases that new babies may be susceptible to, such as ear infections, respiratory infections, diarrhea, and the common cold. Some of the illnesses are more serious and could cause sudden infant death syndrome, mainly whooping cough, meningitis, leukemia and other devastating cancers. Breastfeeding can help in the prevention and reduction of risk in developing diabetes, asthma, and allergies later in life. Formula milk, however, lacks all the natural antibodies that newborns need to strengthen an infant’s non-existent immune system to help fight off infection and illnesses. Formula milk is primarily a source of nutrition and does not contribute to the development of a newborn’s immune system. Shelby Medico 05/28/12 The second difference between breastfeeding and formula feeding is the cost. Breastfeeding is a smart choice because not only is it free, but it saves money. Instead of wasting money on manufactured milk, mothers can take advantage of the free milk produced by Mother Nature. Parents can use money saved by breastfeeding and use it toward other important items newborns need. On the other hand, formula is very expensive and the price of formula adds up. As a baby grows, the parents will have to keep up with the baby’s expanding appetite; therefore, parents will eventually find themselves spending double the amount of money on formula. Formula fed babies also will not be receiving the proper antibodies to help prevent the illnesses that lead to trips to the doctor’s office. Doctor appointments are expensive, not to mention the time off work a parent may have to take to care for a sick child. The final difference between breastfeeding and formula feeding is convenience. Convenience is the key to make feeding a baby an easier task for the parents. Breastfeeding is very convenient because it is always available day and night whenever the baby is hungry. When a mother plans to run errands or simply to go out to eat for lunch with her baby, she will not have to pack anything for the baby to eat. Another convenience of breastfeeding is that it is not necessary to prepare milk and warm bottles in the middle of the night for the half-asleep midnight feedings. Parents of formula fed babies, however, have to spend extra time boiling water to prepare the formula and sterilizing the bottles before the baby can eat. Parents also have to be cautious about warming bottles to make sure the formula milk is not too hot for the baby’s sensitive mouth. Extra inconvenient tasks that have to be done before feeding a hungry, impatient baby can be very frustrating. In conclusion, considering the health benefits, cost, and convenience of breastfeeding, it would be the most logical choice to better a new family’s life.

Love in Times of Cholera

Love in Times of Cholera Gabriel Garcia Marquez 26/10/2011 Alan Anaya| The plot unfolds in Central America early this century, a period in which, according to the narrator, signs of falling in love could be confused with symptoms of cholera. Like the mighty Magdalena, whose banks are developed, the story twists and flowing, rhythmic, deliberate, and prose narrates down through more than sixty years the life of the main characters, Fermina Daza, Florentino Ariza and Doctor  Juvenal Urbino de la Calle. And little by little, this scenario and these characters, as a mixture of tropical plants and clays that the author's hand shapes and fancies, are flowing into the land of myth and legend, approaching to a happy ending. Undoubtedly, the subject is deep, rich, realistic and moving. Garcia Marquez stresses momentous issues in the life of man, such as family, friendship, love in different stages of life, fidelity, conjugal life, and death, for it appeals to a largely descriptive resource. Using a language full of richness and versatility, the Colombian writer tells the complex scheme, plausible and hopeful of a world that resembles, more than we think, the world in which we live. Thus once again shows us that life is nothing but endless work for which human beings were created. The story takes place in the Caribbean town of La Manga, which live submerged in continuous civil wars and the constant threat of cholera. Fermina Daza with his father, Lorenzo Daza, and aunt, moved from San Juan de la Cienega to La Manga in search of a brighter future. Once there, it appears that Florentino Ariza falls in love with Fermina, at which it begins to haunt with long letters of love to which, later, Fermina replays. But one day, Lorenzo Ariza is advised of charting and decides to spend some time away from La Manga, because he wanted another kind of husband for her daughter. So, went to San Juan de la Cienaga where Fermina, in cahoots with his cousin Hildebranda Sanchez, where she continues to correspond to Florentino. Over time, the family returns to La Manga Daza. One day Fermina goes to the market , where she encounters Florentino, realizing instantly that she is not in love with him, and so she communicates him. Florentino is heartbroken, but he swears to himself that sooner or later get the love of Fermina. Time passes, and a good day when Fermina falls ill, goes to make a visit to the village doctor, Juvenal Urbino de la Calle. This, to see the arrogance and pride of Fermina, surrendered at his feet down and makes everything possible for her to agree to marry him. After several attempts, Fermina yield to the insistence of the doctor and gets married, to the great sorrow of Florentino. Florentino, to the despair of the sudden loss of Fermina, â€Å"decides† that Juvenal Urbino dies before Fermina, and therefore her being alone, he appears to live the love that had been banned. A day of Pentecost, in which old age and had settled on the characters, Juvenal, trying to rescue her parrot was stuck in a tree, dies after falling from a ladder. That same day, in the wake of the famous doctor, appears to take the opportunity to remind Florentino for Fermina's promise that he would wait forever cast in his youth, which meets Fermina offended, since he takes it as a dare. After a while the death of Juvenal, Florentino returns to the charting with Fermina, which was initially reluctant. But to celebrate a year of the death of Juvenal, Florentino goes to Fermina Mass and greets you with great emphasis, Florentino fact that taken as a hope. So after a few days, is presented in Fermina's house, a fact that will become a habit and you will thank Fermina. The days and months, and Fermina decides to make a trip up the Magdalena River, which is prepared by Florentino. The trip, originally only going to make Fermina, is that it becomes a sort of honeymoon between the two in which, finally discover that love can occur at any age, in the case of Fermina, or continue any  life, in the case of Florentino.

What Were The Political, Economic, And Social Circumstances That Led Essay

What Were The Political, Economic, And Social Circumstances That Led To The Holocaust - Essay Example However, the Jews were not the only victims of Nazism. It is estimated that as many as 15 million civilians were killed by the Nazi regime, including millions of Slavs and 'asiatics', 200,000 Gypsies and members of various other groups. Furthermore, thousands of people, including Germans of African descent, were forcibly sterilized.1 The word holocaust originally derived from the Greek word holokauston, meaning "a completely (holos) burnt (kaustos) sacrificial offering", or "a burnt sacrifice offered to God". In Greek and Roman pagan rites, gods of the earth and underworld received dark animals, which were offered by night and burnt in full. Holocaust was later used to refer to a sacrifice Jews were required to make by the Torah.2 Initially, the Nazis used killing squads, the Einsatzgruppen to conduct huge open-air killings, in some instances murdering as many as 33,000 people or more in a single day, as in the case of Babi Yar. However, by 1942, the Nazi leadership decided to implement the Final Solution, the genocide of all Jews in Europe, and increase the pace of the Holocaust. While concentration camps and labor camps to contain political enemies had existed since soon after the Nazis came to power in 1933, the Nazi leadership built six extermination camps, including Treblinka and Auschwitz, specifically to kill Jews. Millions of Jews who had been confined to diseased and massively overcrowded Ghettos were transported to the "Death-camps" where they were either gassed or shot, usually immediately after they disembarked from trains.3 As the war started, massive massacres of Jews took place, and, by December 1941, Hitler decided to completely exterminate European Jews. In January 1942, during the Wannsee conference, several Nazi leaders discussed the details of the "Final Solution of the Jewish question" (Endlsung der Judenfrage). Dr. Josef Bhler urged Reinhard Heydrich to proceed with the Final Solution in the General Government. They began to purposely deport Jewish from the ghettos and all occupied territories to the seven camps designated as Vernichtungslager, or extermination camps: Auschwitz, Belzec, Chelmno, Majdanek, Maly Trostenets, Sobibr and Treblinka II. Sebastian Haffner published the analysis in 1978 that Hitler from December 1941 accepted the failure of his goal to dominate Europe forever on his declaration of war against the United States, but that his withdrawal and imminent calm thereafter was sustained by the attainment of Hitler's second goal-the annihilation of the Jews.4 The execution of the Final Solution resulted in the most deadly phase of the Holocaust. However, mass killings of over one million Jews had already begun before the plans of the Final Solution were fully implemented in 1942, but it was only with the decision to eradicate the entire Jewish population that the extermination camps were built and industrialized mass slaughter of Jews began in earnest. This decision to systematically kill the Jews of Europe was made by the time of, or at the Wannsee conference, which took place in Berlin, in the Wannsee Villa on January 20, 1942.5 In addition to the Jews, the Roma and Sinti were also targets of the Holocaust which resulted in about 220,000 deaths in the Holocaust (some estimates are as high as 800,000), between a quarter and a half of the European population. Other groups deemed "undesirable", especially Poles, Soviet military prisoners of war including Russians and other Slavs, the mentally or physically disabled, homosexuals, Jehovah's Witnesses, Communists and political dissidents and criminals, were also persecuted and murdered.

Shakespeare as an Author Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Shakespeare as an Author - Essay Example [Thesis statement]: His tragedies may be interpreted as true depictions of human nature and emotions. One can learn through his plays how deep and complex human emotions are and what great impact they have on our decision-making and judgment abilities. He constructed his tragedies on seemingly small and base human emotions like jealousy, ambitiousness, and procrastination that render great errors of judgment on the part of the protagonists, thus triggering their downfall. Through his tragedies, he not only painted the social, political and intellectual mindset of 16th century England; but also enriched English Literature by breathing life into his characters with his originality and creativity. Shakespeare was a versatile playwright as he wrote tragedies, romantic comedies, and historical plays-- each type speaking of his imagination. Among his most famous tragedies are Othello, Macbeth, Hamlet, and King Lear. His tragedies revolve around the error of judgment that his tragic-heroes make: Othello, Macbeth, Hamlet and King Lear are all men of distinction. Shakespeare handles each character differently and illustrates how the tragic flaws of the tragic heroes change their lives forever. He handles his comedies equally well and deals with different themes about the lighter side of life in his plays like, love and personal relationships. However, â€Å"†¦these are not the only ideas implicit in the comedies; Shakespeare was also concerned with time, destiny, and patience, with old age and youth, with the individual and society, with ignorance and knowledge, confidence and melancholy, with contrasts between love and friendship, nature and art, justice and mercy.† (Brown, 160-161)

Inventory Management Annotated Bibliography Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Inventory Management - Annotated Bibliography Example This book covers on the importance of keeping inventory which includes addressing time lags, seasonal demand, appreciation of value and facing uncertainties among others. Additionally, it covers on the special terms applied in inventory, inventory examples and principles of inventory proportionality. The book focuses at discussing the accounts for inventory in reference to the Generally Accepted Accounting Practices as well as Financial Accounting Standard Board. Additionally, the book covers the role of inventory accounting and the high-level inventory management that is applied by organizations. This book focuses at compiling most recently advances, concepts, ideas and challenges related to intelligent modeling as well as simulation frameworks and applications. While the first chapter looks at the important aspects of correct interpretation, other chapters cover the central theme of simulation frameworks. The book covers the cost concepts and terms, profit measurement, and cost accumulation for inventory valuation. Other inventory related concepts covered by the book include cost-volume-profit analysis, activity based costing, profitability analysis, taxation, information for planning, quantitative methods to management accounting and controlling of stock. This journal discusses the current topic related to management accounting that researchers and other academician can apply. Some of the notable areas covered by the text include research and development, capital budgeting, investment decision in modular manufacturing systems while applying critical thinking as well as decisions in information technology firms. This book covers the scope, applications and practices of management accounting. In addition, it defines the differences between management accounting and financial accountancy as well as the specific methodologies applied in management accounting including

Cultural discussion Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Cultural discussion - Research Paper Example Furthermore, the nurse must consider that Mrs. Nasser’s daughter already has high fever and needs immediate attention. She should accentuate to Mrs. Nasser that she cannot prescribe medicine without understanding the cause of her daughter’s symptoms. In addition, since her daughter is a minor, we cannot force Mrs. Nasser to authorize tests and procedures that she does not want for her daughter. The recommendations for the nurse are: 1) She should inform Mrs. Nasser that her daughter needs immediate clinical attention for her fever and discomfort and that she will try to get a Muslim female physician/gynecologist for her to appease her cultural reservations. If no Muslim female doctor is available, she will tell her that she will try to get a female doctor. If no female doctor is available, then they will find a male doctor and ensure that all examinations will be done with her mother present (Lo, 2009, p.335). The nurse can also remind Mrs. Nasser that ‘necessity overrides the prohibition,’ which is a rule of Islamic Sariah. 2) The nurse can suggest other kinds of examinations to rule out possible causes of diseases, such as physical examination, where if a male physician does it, he will do it with gloves on and in the presence of Mrs. Nasser. Other options are taking rectum samples and doing an ultrasound. 3) The nurse must be sincere and responsive to the cultural and religious beliefs of Mrs. Nasser. She must discuss these various laboratory testing options to her, so that she feels that she has the autonomy to make decisions for her daughter. This will build trust too, which is essential, noting that Mrs. Nasser is scared for her daughter, but wants to remain true to her cultural/religious beliefs. Reference Lo, B. (2009). Resolving ethical dilemmas: A guide for clinicians (4th ed.). Baltimore, MD: Lippincott Williams, & Wilkins. Cuban Discussion Food is considered part of people’s culture, which is why it is not surprisin g that Mrs. Demetilla Hernandez wants to continue cooking traditional Cuban dishes to her family. Cuban food affirms her Cuban identity. Cubans strongly value family needs too, which is why Mrs. Hernandez prefers to cook traditional Cuban dishes, though they might not be good for her, after being diagnosed with Type 2 Diabetes. She might think that the happiness and satisfaction of her family is more important than her health. Furthermore, as a traditional Cuban woman, Mrs. Hernandez might have more faith in herbs than medicine. It is possible that she is used to drinking herbs to manage her former illnesses. In addition, there must be some language barriers too. She might not understand the lifestyle changes required to keep her blood sugar level close to normal. She needs to absorb the complications of unmanaged Type 2 Diabetes, such as heart and blood vessel disease, nerve damage (neuropathy), and foot damage, among others. Language barriers, cultural beliefs, and diet concerns m ust be addressed. The recommendations for the nurse are: 1) If she knows Spanish, she should speak in Spanish with Mrs. Hernandez and explain to her what Type 2 Diabetes is and what the possible complications are. If not, she should get a Spanish nurse to help her or refer her to a Spanish doctor who can help explain the lifestyle changes needed to manage her blood sugar l

The Church as Seen Through Romero Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The Church as Seen Through Romero - Assignment Example From this study it is clear that Romero upholds this understanding of the church when he solicited the idea of the other bishops although he already expressed his decision in front of the people who were gathered to attend to the bodies. He critiques this when he discovers that there is such a compromise among the church authorities.As the report highlights the church is said to be a proclaiming people when steps out to become the voice of the voiceless, the strength of the weak and the defender of the oppressed. The church authorities who have the means should do the proclaiming when the people are not able to do so in the presence of the powerful, the rich and the famous. This is to be done in diplomatic manners just as Bishop Romero exemplified in his life by bringing to the attention of the political authorities the grievances of the people. When he was not heard in his own country, he sent a letter to the president of the United States, asking him to stop sending American troops because they are just there to kill their people. This is important because there are so many times in real life that the poor are not given the voice to express their plights.  The church is described as a sacrament when it shows the attributes of God towards the people. The priests and bishops are included in the model because as authorities of the church, they should be the first ones to reflect the characteristics of Jesus.

Business law - situational question Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Business law - situational question - Essay Example In fact, the terms of the owners of the parking garage could be considered to be legally unreasonable and therefore there could indeed be grounds for a law suit against them. This is due to the fact that within the UCTA 1977 Act and the Unfair Terms in Consumer Contracts Regulations 1999, there have been many clauses within company terms rendered ineffective due to the fact that they are totally infeasible (MacDonald 2004, p. 69). Of course there have been many cases that have been variant from this one which have been found to hold unreasonable terms and therefore the party of each case was held responsible for the adversities that arose to the defendants. These could be cases of faulty goods and the terms of sale unreasonable, or it could be of cases stemming from an even simpler nature. One case that was found to have unreasonable terms and of which the defendant won was in AEG Ltd v. Logic Resource Ltd (Bradgate 1997, p. 582). Of course though this was not a case that involved any form of injury to the defendant it could have resulted in loss of profit and adversity for the company. Therefore based on the laws of the UCTA 1977 Act, the defendant was awarded that which he was asking in the case due to the unreasonableness of the plaintiff's terms in the contract. This could be viewed in a similar light in regards to Helen's case and the terms in the parking garage. ... Therefore, for reasons such as these and others similar, the UCTA 1977 Act looks at all occurrences, not simply injury related ones. In Helen's case the terms are obviously unreasonable(as has been stated) and in that regard can not be binding as a form of protection for the owners to not have to face negligent charges and restitution damages by the defendant, which is Helen. Furthermore, because the notice in the garage and the memo are not incorporated logically then there is a definite unreasonable factor being presented. Helen might have assumed that the threat of injury or danger to her body or car was only slight because she was not aware of the falling debris in the garage due to the construction. However, the London Shoe company was aware of the construction and therefore, as was stated should have known to shut down the parking garage until the construction was totally completed so that there would be no unfortunate accidents or injuries. Yet the company failed to do this an d it resulted in a very adverse outcome for Helen. The owners of the parking garage definitely can not deny a "sense of liability" to Helen due to the fact that they did not properly post about the construction in the parking garage and the construction in itself deviated far from any minute injury or adverse occurrence that could have taken place at any other time in the garage (Barmes 2004, p. 435).Furthermore, since the contract with the parking garage assigning parking privileges to employees seemed to be breached then the owners themselves have a liability to the defendant as has been stated. The reason that there was a breach is due to the fact that the circumstances surrounding the parking garage changed when the construction took

Markets & Marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Markets & Marketing - Essay Example A Market is the demographic and/or geographic group or groups of buyers for products and services on offer. It may be limited to a small area or may be worldwide but that is dependant on the type of product or service on offer. But a market can be defined only through the Marketing effort that is put in to exploit this market. The potential market may be larger but the market for a product or service is the targeted market for which it makes this effort. Using different methods, Marketing determines the size of the market that is being approached but this has to be a controlled exercise otherwise the effort will be aimless. Usually this data is drawn from valued sources such as the U.S. Postal Service Deliverable address counts, Equifax TotalSourceâ„ ¢ consumer database household counts, as well as state and local agencies. Some important databases are: National Change of Address (NCOA) is a database owned and updated by the United States Postal Service (USPS) It containing approximately 160 Million permanent address records filed with the USPS over the last 48 months. (NCOA) ï‚ · Mail Preference Service (MPS)  -   This list is managed by the Direct Marketing Association and lists people who have opted not to receive advertisements through mails. ï‚ · Deceased Master File Suppression  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ This list flags addresses whose primary residents have died. With this data it is possible to segment the market and subsequently to determine the target customers for the organization’s products. Once this data is available, the serious exercise of Segmentation begins. Markets are heterogeneous and are created by reasons of different values, needs wants, constraints, beliefs and incentives. Customers differ in their values and perceptions and want to purchase things that have value for them. Value is not just the monetary part, but also the usefulness and emotions that with go with it. The need and want play a great role in

System Development and Project Management Essay

System Development and Project Management - Essay Example We are interested in a system development, which can manage projects within the organization. Organizations felt the need for system development as the requirements increases. First of all, they have to depute a team leader or manager who plans, manages and controls the development process of the project. The project manager has to understand the requirements of the client and then determine the scope of the project. At the same time, a system development team has to be created by those employees who have requisite qualifications and knowledge. The team should be lead by dynamic, able leader who can control and manage the project. Normally due to lengthy projects having complex activities and scarce resources, development team feels demotivated. Employees having negative attitudes also create problems in the team results in lower productivity. Unproductive work environment, inefficient project management styles, lack of stakeholders’ interest and commitment of senior managemen t team results in a demotivated team, low level of productivity, delay in projects and subsequent failure of projects. So before forming a system development team we have to analyze on the above aspects first then only we can move forward to develop a system to manage projects. Previously software development consists of a programmer writing codes to solve a problem or automate a procedure. Nowadays systems are so big and complex that team of architects, analysts, programmers, testers and users must work together.  

An Evaluation of the Performance of the United Nations Essay Example for Free

An Evaluation of the Performance of the United Nations Essay Abstract   The United Nations is the most dominant international governmental organization in the world. Having been formed with the main objective of preventing war immediately after World War II, so far it appears to have had little success in doing so. Yet there are many problems that are global in nature and thus depend on the United Nations to address them. This has prompted scrutiny into the activities and affairs of the United Nations with the aim of assessing the strengths and weaknesses of the organization. This study takes a critical look into the structures and responsibilities of the political and security organs of the United Nations with the aim of identifying weaknesses and making proposals on how improve on the performance of the organization.   Chapter I Introduction   Introductory paragraphs The challenge of insecurity in international relations remains one of the biggest threats facing the world today. Despite numerous spirited efforts by countries throughout the world to secure the international system from the ever lurking dangers of international wars, the principle of collective security remains as elusive as ever. Since the formation of the United Nations (UN) in 1945, the international system has evidently been characterized by numerous security challenges that have particularly been defined by events during the Cold War, after the Cold War and after the September 11 2001 terrorism attacks upon the United States. With the foundation of the United Nations having been solidly based on the principles of collective security, there are increasing concerns as to whether the United Nations is living up to its billing. Past events have clearly demonstrated that the United Nations lacks adequate capacity and authority to enforce the principle of collective security. According to Goldstein (2003), â€Å"The UN Charter establishes a mechanism for collective security – the banding together of the world’s states to stop an aggressor (p. 267). Chapter 7 of the Charter explicitly authorizes the Security Council to use military force against aggression if the use of non-violent means as captured in chapter 6 fail. According to the UN Charter, the United Nations may intervene domestically in a state that commits acts of aggression or poses threats to security. However, this principle is usually enforced selectively. Analysis by Roberts Kingsbury (1994) showed that because great nations possess veto powers, the UN cannot aggressively stop aggression by (or supported by) a great power. Therefore, Chapter seven was used once during the Cold War – in the Korean War when the Soviet delegation unwisely boycotted the Security Council proceedings (p. 61). â€Å"The U.S. flew the U.N. flag in reversing the North Korean invasion of South Korea in 1950 and the invasion of Iraq in 1990, and both violations were a violation of the international law under the UN charter† (Roberts Kingsbury, 1994, p. 63). Goldstein (2003) notes that it was under Chapter 7 of the Charter that the UN authorized the use of force to reverse Iraq aggression against Kuwait in 1990 (p.269). To the surprise of many, â€Å"the United Nations never intervened militarily in similar illegal Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 and the Israel invasion of Lebanon in 1982† (Roberts Kingsbury, 1994, p. 68). These were clear indications that the United Nations is limited by the demands of power politics in the international system. Kochler (2002) emphasizes that the international system is fundamentally anarchical, with the great powers still dominating the international system and the United Nations itself† (p. 6) Purpose of the study Just as the League of Nations grew out of the World War I, the United Nations grew out of the World War II. Like the League of Nations, The United Nations did not fundamentally challenge national sovereignty, it did not alter the existing distribution of power among nation-states, and it institutionalized the dominant position of the great powers – specifically the victorious powers in the World War II. The United Nations did not gain the monopoly on the legitimate use of force, which would be necessary to become a world government and to impose order through superior force and authority. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to evaluate the fundamental abilities of the United Nations in pursuing and achieving the principle of collective security in the international system. Research Question The ever increasing threats to the state of security in the world have prompted a close scrutiny on the United Nation’s core function of collective security. As a contemporary international governmental organization (IGO), the United Nations certainly does not constitute a world government with absolute power and authority to impose peace on the world. Yet, this does not mean the United Nations is powerless or insignificant. While the United Nations faces numerous hurdles in enforcing the international law due to the sovereignty statues of states and nation-states, the organization can still influence the behavior of states and provide forums for communication and interaction that would be considered more orderly than implied by the concept of anarchy. Therefore the research question involves a critical look into the performance of the United Nations relative to its main function of upholding the principle of collective security in the international system. Hypothesis The core empirical research hypothesis of this study states that the United Nations has not succeeded in upholding the principle of collective security in the international system. Significance of the study The United Nations Charter is based on unifying principles that serve as the driving force for the organization’s initiatives. One of the key principles of the United Nations Charter is the recognition of the sovereign equality of all member states. As such, all member states are considered to be equally sovereign over their respective territories. Each member state has one vote in the General assembly, yet they are not equal in wealth and power. Moreover, only five major powers have permanent seats on the Security Council. Critics and admirers alike point out that the United Nations institutionalizes international inequality due to the fact that the Charter is loaded with idealistic principles that bear little resemblance to reality. Therefore the study is significant because it will highlight on the many challenges that the United Nations faces in its efforts to uphold the principle of collective security and make appropriate recommendations for addressing those particular challenges. Research Limitations The main limitation of this study is lack of sufficient literature regarding the problems that the United Nations encounters while performing its core function of upholding the principle of collective security. Most of the existing literatures about the United Nations have focused more on the success of the organization rather than failures. Definition of terms For the basis of this study, the definitions of international relations, international system, terrorism, international organizations and collective security will be expressed in the simplest terms: International relations are the processes that define the terms of interaction state and non-state actors relate amongst themselves in the international system. International system refers to a set of relationships among world states, structured according to certain rules and patterns of interaction. Goldstein (2003) illustrates that some of these rules are implicit while others are explicit as they determine who is considered a member of the system, what rights and responsibilities members have and what kind of rights and responsibilities occur among states. Terrorism refers to a form of political violence that targets civilians deliberately and indiscriminately, with the aim of gaining advantage in international bargaining situations. Terrorism usually becomes effective if it succeeds in damaging the morale of a population and also when it gains media exposure for the cause. International organizations are organizations involved in politically relevant activities whose membership and activities occur in more than one country. Collective security is a principle of the UN Charter that advocates for the banding together of the world’s states to stop an aggression against member states. Under the principle of collective security, aggression against one member of the UN is seen as an aggression against all. Chapter 7 of the Charter explicitly authorizes the Security Council to use military force against aggression if the use of non-violent means as captured in chapter 6 fail. Chapter II – Background Literature Review The United Nations was founded at the end of World War II in 1945 to replace the League of Nations. The formation of the UN became apparent after the realization that the League of Nations had failed miserably. Mesler (1997) acknowledges that the failure of the League of Nations was precipitated by the lack of adequate power and authority, instability in the international system and the unwillingness of the US Senate to ratify the treaty that formed the league (p. 11). However, the underlying principles that led to the formation of the United Nations are synonymous with those that governed the formation of the League of Nations. Unlike the League of Nations which lacked the backing of the US Senate, the United Nations received the overwhelming endorsement and backing of both the US Senate and President. As an international governmental organization (IGO), the foundation and significance of the United Nations is best demonstrated by the theory of realism. â€Å"According to the theory of realism, there is no world government, or political authority above the state, thus the international system is essentially anarchical without any overarching political body capable of imposing law and order in the behavior of its members or nation-states†(Roberts Kingsbury, 1994, p. 19). The theory stresses on the centrality of the state, or nation-state, as the supreme political authority in world politics. The theory of realism is based on the assumption that the overriding motive of all states is self-preservation through maximization of power, a situation that transforms the international system to a static state of a war of all against all. Roberts Kingsbury (1994) note that stability is best achieved through balance of power, which results from uninhibited interaction among states, with the most powerful country acting as a balancer (p.19). According to Goldstein (2003) the international relations theory of realism recognizes low politics (economic and social matters) to be secondary to high politics (military and security) (p. 265). It is upon this premise that the United Nations was founded to act as the over-arching political body to impose law and order on the behavior. In essence, the United Nations would enforce peace by treating aggression against one as an aggression against all and collectively defeating the offender. The formation of the United Nations is further favored by the international relations theory of idealism. The theory of idealism is based on Immanuel Kant’s philosophical theory that focuses on the cooperative capacity of human beings rather than their selfishness and lust for power. â€Å"In his book titled Perpetual Peace, Immanuel Kant argued that just as the consensual establishment of government brings order and domestic tranquility to people within states, so does the establishment of a world congress among republican states in bringing perpetual peace to the world generally, thus ending the war for all time† (Roberts Kingsbury, 1994, p. 39). Kant believed that a pacific union would need to be made up of republican states based on representative governments, for when the people themselves rather than princes could decide whether or not to go to war, they would invariably avoid it, for it is they who must bear all the burdens of warfare. These republican governments would establish a world congress to settle disputes and avoid the potential for violent conflict. â€Å"Kant ultimately laid the philosophical groundwork not only for the contemporary theory of idealism, but also its corresponding institutionalization in the form of international governmental organizations (IGOs) like the United Nations (Roberts Kingsbury, 1994, p. 40). However, the two theories of realism and liberalism are sharply contrasted by the theory of liberalism. Roberts Kingsbury (1994) note that in the international system, liberalism theory recognizes state preferences as opposed to state capabilities, to be the primary determinants of state behavior (p.44). Roberts Kingsbury (1994) point out that unlike the theory of realism where the state is seen as a unitary actor, liberalism advocates for plurality of state actions (p.45). The liberalism theory further states that interaction among states is not limited to high politics (military and security), but stretches further to low politics (economic and social matters). Therefore, this situation eliminates the anarchical situation in the international system as states gain plenty of opportunities for interaction through broader economic and cultural cooperation. Although the realism and liberalism theories project different arguments concerning the founding philosophies of international organizations, both theories acknowledge the need for lasting peace and security in the international system. The spirit of peace and security is what motivated the founding of the United Nations. The organization was founded with the main objective of maintaining international peace and security through peaceful settlement of disputes. The United Nations is further entrusted with the task of promoting economic and social co-operation, in part through consultation with non-governmental organizations as well as the promotion of human rights for populations throughout the world. â€Å"The United Nations Charter is based on the principle that states are equal under international law; states have full sovereignty over their own affairs; that states should have full independence and territorial integrity; and states should carry out their international obligations that include respecting diplomatic privileges, refraining from committing aggression, and observing the terms of the treaties they sign† (Goldstein, 2003, p. 206). The Charter also lays out the structure of the United Nations and the methods by which it operates. According to the United Nations website, the structure of the United Nations consists of the General Assembly, the Security Council, Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), Trusteeship Council, Secretariat, and the International Court of Justice. The secretariat is headed by the Secretary General and is principally the bureaucratic wing of the United Nations. The Secretary General serves for a maximum of two 5 year terms. The international Court of Justice is headquartered in Hague, Netherlands, and serves as the principal judicial organ of the United Nations. It consists of fifteen judges elected by the General Assembly and Security Council for nine-year terms and each one of them must be from a different state. While the decisions of the international Court of Justice are formally binding, it possesses no mechanisms of enforcement. The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) coordinates the United Nation’s various specialized agencies while the Trusteeship Council was set up to oversee the administration of trusteeships. Weiss Dhows (2007) point out that the General assembly and the Security Council are the most important organs that handle issues that concern the principle of collective security (p.149). The general assembly is the only organ in which every member state is represented, with each state having exactly one vote according to the spirit of sovereign equality. Linda (2003) further reveals that the General Assembly mainly serves as a forum for debates, reviews and setting of agenda (p.33). However, the enforcement of the decisions made by the General Assembly is never guaranteed despite the fact that the resolutions are usually passed by a 2/3 majority. The Security Council consists of five permanent members with veto powers. The five permanent members include the United States Britain, Russia, China and France. The Security Council also consists of 10 other members who are usually proposed by the General Assembly and serve on a 2-year rotation basis. The decisions of the Security Council are binding and enforceable. According to Weiss Dhows (2007), the Security Council deals with collective security and peacekeeping at the request of one or more of the parties in conflict. Moreover, the Security Council has the rights to investigate any dispute or situation that might threaten international peace and security, and to recommend methods of resolution. The Security Council further negotiates ceasefires and disengagements as instruments of conflict resolution. The council is further vested with powers to sanction or authorize the use of military force to contain a conflict. However, the powers of the Security Council are limited in two ways: first, the council’s decisions depends entirely on the interests of member states, thus the ambassadors who represent the states cannot change a council resolution without authorization from their respective governments; and second, member states often try to evade or soften the effects of binding resolutions made by the Security Council. However, Goldstein (2003) warns that Security Council resolution can be enforced only if enough powerful states care about it (p. 272). The Security Council runs a formal mechanism for coordinating multilateral military action in response to aggression, referred to as the Military Staff Committee. The committee is composed of military officers from the permanent council members. The Military Staff Committee was established under chapter 43 of the United Nations charter. However, â€Å"the committee has never been used due to the fact that the United States opposes the procedure of placing its forces under non-US commanders (Goldstein, 2003, p.272). â€Å"According to Goldstein (2006) this is the reason why military forces responding to aggression under the auspices of the Security Council resolutions have always remained under their respective national commands, as was the case during the Gulf War where the U.S. forces undertook the mission of enforcing a UN resolution but did not display UN insignia or flags† (p.273). The Cold war rivalry between the United States and the Soviet is considered to be one of the biggest challenges that ever characterized the United Nations Security Council. The rivalry had split the member states into two blocks, a situation that led to the unnecessary use of veto powers by the United States and the Soviet. According to the Un Committee Report on contributors, the United Nations is funded through contributions from member states. Contributions are assessed according the economic strengths of the member states. The United States has always been the largest contributor to the United Nations. The United States used to contribute 25% of the UN budget until 1997 when maximum contribution was reduced to 20% under the watch of the then Secretary General Kofi Annan. The poorest majority of the General Assembly may pay less than 1% while the ten wealthiest contributors pay 75% of the budget, but cast less 75 of the vote. Major contributors to the regular UN budget for 2006    Member State Contribution% of   total UN budget United States 22.00% Japan 19.47% Germany 8.66% United Kingdom 6.13% France 6.03% Italy 4.89% Canada 2.81% Spain 2.52% China 2.05% Mexico 1.88% Australia 1.59% Brazil 1.52% Source: www.unstats.un.org   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The above statistics are representative sample of financial contributions from UN member countries. All member states make contributions to the UN. Chapter III Methods The proposed study is based on a pre-post design, meaning that performance evaluation was based on events during the Cold War, after the Cold War and the events after the September 11, 2001 terrorism attacks upon the United States. Participants were asked to state their opinions and answer opinions on questions regarding the performance of the United Nations relative to its key duties of ensuring collective security for all member states. The study mainly consisted of a demographic questionnaire consisting of 15 items that were designed to measure the attitudes of the participants concerning the roles of the United Nations in maintaining global peace and security. The study involved a two-dimensional approach of tolerance and stability. Tolerance refers to the degree to which the principle of collective security is accepted as a politically tolerable action; while stability refers to domestic and international legitimacy of the principle of collective security. The demographic questionnaire further consisted of descriptive information of the participants such as age, sex, religion, nationality, gender and race. The study also involved comprehensive research from existing literature that was designed to assess the validity of theories of international relations and international law to the founding principles of the United Nations. Data collection Stratified random samples were drawn from both online college populations and the general public, followed by simple random sampling in each group. The study employed both theoretical and accessible populations in sampling with the aim of reaching wide and varying audiences. The sourced reports obtained from participants provided helpful insights into the different opinions and attitudes that different people of different ages, gender, religion, nationalities and races have towards the United Nations relative to the performance of its international duties. The population sample targeted existing views from participants aged 18 year and above. Data analysis An analysis of variance was used to measure the data. Repeated measurements of data were used to determine and rate different opinions and attitudes from different participants concerning aspects of collective security functions of the United Nations. Limitations Limitations in the context of this study refer to the factors which may have prevented the persons from participating or responding accurately to the questionnaires. The main limitation of this study involved geographical constraints. It was difficult to involve people from all member states of the United Nations given that the UN membership currently stands at more than 200 states. There were also restraints in terms of correct interpretation of the questions as many participants did not have deep knowledge and understanding of international relations. Some participants may have declined to participate completely because the 15 questionnaire items may have been too much for them. Chapter IV Results The results of this study revealed that as much as the United Nations has performed and continues to perform important roles in international relations, the organization did not live up to its billing. Since its inception, the United Nations has been dancing to the whims of the super powers, and the United States in particular. Contrary to expectations, the United Nations did not fundamentally challenge national sovereignty, it did not alter the existing distribution of power among nation-states, and it institutionalized the dominant position of the great powers – specifically the victorious powers in the World War II. According to Goldstein (2003), the United Nations did not gain the monopoly on the legitimate use of force, which was necessary for it to become a world government with authority to impose order through superior use of force (p. 270). The reality of equality among states in the UN is another issue that raises many concerns among member states. Roberts Kingsbury (1994) are concerned that as much as the principles of the United Nations recognize the sovereign equality of all member states, and that each member state has one vote in the General assembly is far from the reality because member states are not equal in wealth and power (p.97). Moreover, only five major powers have permanent seats on the Security Council. Critics and admirers alike point out that the United Nations institutionalizes international inequality due to the fact that the Charter is loaded with idealistic principles that bear little resemblance to reality. Chapter V Discussion The credibility of the United Nations has been put to question due to issues surrounding sovereignty of the institution. The extent to which the United Nations can exercise decisive authority to stamp order in the law and order in the international system remains a riddle. Roberts Kingsbury (1994) concur that this is reason why the U.S. flew the U.N. flag in reversing the North Korean invasion of South Korea in 1950 and the invasion of Iraq in 1990, and both violations were a violation of the international law under the UN charter (p.116). However, to the surprise of many, â€Å"the United Nations never intervened militarily in similar illegal Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 and the Israel invasion of Lebanon in 1982† Roberts Kingsbury, 1994, p. 117). These were clear indications that the United Nations is limited by the demands of power politics in the international system. According to Kochler (2006),the international system is fundamentally anarchical, with the great powers still dominating the international system and the United Nations itself (p.21) Power struggles is one of the biggest challenges facing the United Nations today. Kochler (2002) notes that like states, IGO’s are largely designed by the dominant powers to serve their interests (p. 23) Kochler (2002) further notes that while the existence of the United Nations is intended to maintain world peace and security, it is a world peace and security that perpetuates existing power arrangements and the economic and political systems that support them (p.24). A case in point is the 1989 invasion of Kuwait by Iraq. The UN acted when Iraq invaded Kuwait, mainly because the US was able to dominate the Security Council and the invasion threatened to increase world oil prices. This was classic power politics within the guise of a â€Å"new world order† (Roberts Kingsbury, 1994, p. 123). On the other hand, when the United Nations General Assembly issued a near universal condemnation of the U.S. invasion of Panama, the United States ignored the condemnations and executed the entire invasion with little regard to international concerns. These cases arose as a result of the weakness apparent in the structure of the United Nations. Roberts Kingsbury (1994) are concerned that the United Nations gives greater enforcement powers to the Security Council than to other bodies within the organization, yet the Security Council is dominated by the great powers which only pursue interests that are of significance to their nations (p.128). The other concern raised in regard to the performance of the United Nations is the aspect of equality in participation. In essence, cooperation does not necessarily imply the equality of participation or interests. As situations provide, states cooperate in institutions that exploit them because they perceive no alternative, just as the case with the UN, which clearly executes its mandate in favor of the interests of the super powers while neglecting the poor countries. A step by step analysis of the UN during and after the Cold War as well as after the September 11, 2001 terrorism attacks upon the United States reveals some of the most appalling weaknesses in the abilities of the United Nations to enforce lasting peace and security in the international system. The United Nations during the Cold War The period between 1945 and 1955 went down as one of the most difficult periods in the history of the United Nations. â€Å"Marked by a Cold War stalemate that pitied the United States and the Soviet Union against each other, the UN made very little progress during this period due to frequent use of veto powers by the two countries (Mesler, 1997, p.14). One of the biggest challenges that the United Nations faced was that of membership expansion because the US and Soviet exercised their veto powers to prevent the admission of new states perceived to be allied with the other side. Mesler (1997) reveals that between 1945 and 1955, the UN only managed to admit 9 new members (p.16). However, a 1955 bloc deal permitted admission of 16 new members, 8 on each side and the stalemate was avoided thereafter through frequent consultations and bargaining, and caucusing. The United Nations was also characterized by serious funding disputes during the Cold War. â€Å"In 1956, the Soviet Bloc and several Arab States declined to contribute to the United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF) that was sent to set up a buffer between Israel and Egypt after the second Arab Israel war (Mesler, 1997, p.19). This war came about when Egypt under Nasser sought to nationalize the British controlled Suez Canal, an action the prompted a declaration of war by Britain, France and Israel. Goldstein (2003) acknowledges that during the Cold War, the United Nations had few successes in international security because the U.S. – Soviet conflict prevented consensus (2003, p.269). The United Nations had been relegated to irrelevance in a world order that had been structured by two opposing alliance blocks. Mesler (1997) is concerned that although there were few notable exceptions, such as agreements to station peacekeeping forces in the Middle East, the United Nations did not play a central role in solving international crisis (p.31). The predominance of third world membership added to the UN woos as they necessitated the shift of focus by the UN from security issues to economic and social problems of the poor countries. This was contrary to the international relations theory of realism which identifies low politics (economic and social matters) to be secondary to high politics (military and security). â€Å"Third world states also used the United Nations as a forum for criticizing the rich countries in general, with the United States having been their main target (Goldstein 2003 p. 270). In the 1950’s and 1960’s, the UN membership doubled as colonies in Africa and Asia gained independence. The expansion caused changes in the character of the general Assembly. According to Mesler (1997), â€Å"The concerns of the new members were completely different from those of the western industrialized nations and on many occasions, showed open resentment to their former colonial masters (p.31). Moreover, the third world states became concerned about the overwhelming powers and privileges that the United States enjoyed in the UN. Mesler (1997) further reveals that third world countries were concerned in the manner in which the UN usually became effective in international security affairs when the United States led the efforts. These concerns led to the emergence of rifts between the United States and the third world countries, and consequently, the United States found itself on the minority on many issues. By 1980’s when the pressure from the third world countries became unbearable, the United States reacted by withholding their financial contributions to the United Nations. According to Mesler (1997), the non payment of U.S dues rose to more than $1 billion and was subsequently followed by the withdrawal of membership from the UNESCO (p. 33). However, it must be noted that the UN registered quite some notable success in the late 1980’s just before the end of the Cold war. Mesler (1997) acknowledges that the UN successfully brought to an end several regional conflicts that included the 1988 Iraq – Iran war and the Central American crisis (p.39). The UN successfully engineered ceasefire negotiations among the parties and provided peacekeeping forces that monitored the implementations of the ceasefire agreements. The United Nations after the Cold War The end of the Cold War marked the end of bipolar alignments in the international system and paved way to a multilateral order. This led to more flexible relations among states in the international system and thus great powers could finally agree on different issues regarding the international security. The end of the Cold War further brought to a halt the trend that the third world had deployed in playing off the super powers against each other. According to Mesler (1997), greater cooperation emerged between the United States and the formerly hostile third world countries, a situation that moved the UN to the center stage of international relations (p.38). However, the United Nations still faced challenges that basically related to the drive for power by the country that emerged as the global hegemon from the power struggle of the Cold War, in this case, the United States of America. By the early 1990’s, the United Nations had successfully asserted its position as the world’s most important tool for settling international conflicts. According to an analysis provided by Goldstein (2003) in 1993, Security Council resolutions had increased to 78 from 15 in 1987; peacekeeping missions had risen to 17 from 5 in 1987; peacekeepers had risen to 78,000 from 12,000 in 1987; and countries sending troops had risen to 76 from 26 in 1987 (p. 269). Moreover, the UN oversaw the independence of Namibia from South Africa and the country’s first free elections in 1990. However, the UN faced numerous daunting challenges during the post-Cold War period. Mesler (1997) identifies the problem of inadequate funding that was occasioned by the non-payment of dues by the United States to have been one of the biggest challenges that the United Nations faced during the post Cold War period (p.42). â€Å"The UN woos during the post-Cold War period were further worsened by the failure of the United States to honor its financial obligations to the organization Mesler† (p.42). The United States failed to pay its dues for many years, citing budgetary misappropriation by the UN as their main concern. The US congress demanded the shrinking of UN budgets and cutting down of staff jobs before sanctioning the allocation of funds to the UN. The US congress further delayed confirming the new US ambassador to the UN, Richard Holbrook, leaving the position vacant for a year. These particular free-riding tendencies by the US presented the UN with difficulties in delivering its core functions of collective security and responsibility. Another post Cold War draw back occurred in Angola, where, upon sending just a few peacekeepers to assist in the beefing up of security during the 1992 elections, hell broke loose and rebels took up arms after the government won in the internationally observed elections. The UN was completely overwhelmed and could not contain the rebels. â€Å"In Cambodia, the Khmer Rouge faction refused to disarm according to the UN brokered peace plan it had signed, a process that was subsequently overtaken by events after a coup that interrupted Cambodia’s transition to democracy† (Mesler 1997, p. 51). Mesler (1997) identifies Yugoslavia as the other place where the UN faced serious draw backs even after undertaking the largest peacekeeping mission of nearly 40,000 foreign troops costing $1 billion annually from 1993 and 1995 (P. 51). â€Å"The mission was extremely incapacitated by the variance that emerged between the type of forces sent (lightly armed forces equipped for humanitarian operations) and the situation on the ground which was a full scale territorial aggression by heavily armed forces (Mesler, 1997, p.52). This unhappy combination came to be known as â€Å"peacekeeping where there was no peace to keep.† Mesler (1997) notes that in response to the problems of inefficiency and financial difficulties, the UN scaled back its peacekeeping troops from 78,000 in 1995 to 19,000 in 1997, and further carried out staff reduction and reforms in the UN secretariat and UN programs (p. 53). UN during the Post 9/11 The September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks upon the United States marked a turning point in the history of the United Nations. The US significantly increased its participation in the United Nations, and a decisive coalition of member states endorsed US war on terrorism. However, there are increased concerns throughout the world that the United States has hijacked the whole process to advance its own national interests at the expense of other states. The United Nations has been pushed to the periphery by the United States in the war on terrorism. The foreign policy measures adopted by the United States after the September 11terrorism attacks are a clear encroachment of the international law. The United States has masterminded the emergence of a new geo-strategic situation in the international system that has effectively reduced the United Nations to a mere rubber stamping authority. As the only hegemony, the United States has taken full advantage of its dominant status usurp the roles of the United Nations. â€Å"The United States claims supreme authority for all measures related to the ongoing anti-terrorism campaigns and does not accept neutral arbiters – such as the UN – in determination of the actual terrorism threats † (Kochler, 2002, p. 4). According to Kochler (2002) the United Nations has indeed been pushed to the sidelines and cannot act anymore according to the Charter’s doctrine of collective security, which since the end of World War II was and still ought to be the core element of multilateral international order represented – or advocated, to be more realistic by the world body (p.9). Kochler (2002) asserts that by arrogating itself the right to act on behalf of the international community, the United States violates the principles that were established under the United Nations Charter which are exclusively reserved for the Security Council and can only be invoked in conformity with the regulations of Chapter 7 of the United Nations Charter (p.11). In its pursuits on the war on terror, the United States with the backing of its western allies attacked Afghanistan in October 2001. However, the attack did not receive the full backing of the United Nations Security Council. Therefore, despite the wide ranging support for the genuine course and concerns of the United States, it is important for operations of such magnitude to undertaken strictly under the full mandate of the United Nations. The other instance during which the United States undermined the authority of the United Nations was the invasion of Iraq in March 2003. Although the Iraq invasion was well intended to rid the world of the dangers posed by weapons of mass destruction and terrorism, once again the United States did not seek the full approval of the UN Security Council. The war in Iraq has ended up being too devastating, claiming lives of thousands of Iraqi citizens and military personnel of the US and its allies. A critical analysis of the Iraq war relative to the rational model of war reveals a big gap between the good achieved and the evil that has been entrenched by the war. It is evident that the Iraq conflict could have been handled effectively by the United Nations through non-violent means as provided for by the chapter 6 of the Charter. The US war on terrorism is run on a platform of preventive war. â€Å"The concept of preventive war as advanced in the new strategic doctrine of the United States is by all means incompatible with the United Nations Charter because the Charter explicitly and unequivocally bans use of force in all forms in the international system except in cases of self-defense or by way of chapter 7 of the UN Charter upon full approval of the Security council† Kochler, 2002, p. 12). Kouchler (2002) further demonstrates his concerns by stating that under the present circumstances, national sovereignty – though guaranteed by the United Nations Charter – has been reduced to a state’s freedom to identify vis-à  -vis the only superpower, with the alternative of either joining the â€Å"forces of evil† or opposing them, without any rights to participate in the determination of what is evil. Therefore, the United States has successfully entrenched its own strategic agendas in different parts of the world under the guise of counter-terrorism war (p. 21). Kouchler identifies the control over specific geopolitical regions and strategic natural resources to be among the key agenda of the US policies that are being implemented under the ongoing war on terror. The US war on terror has evidently taken heavy toll on peace and security in the entire international system. Apart from undermining the principle of collective security as espoused by the United Nations Charter, the counter-terrorism war has been detrimental to the principle of sovereignty and equality of states in the international system. Moreover, individual human rights and fundamental freedoms of citizens throughout the world have been curtailed due to the ever increasing threats of retaliatory attacks from terrorists. Furthermore, citizens of countries under US military invasion have often become victims of indiscriminate use of force. The US war on terror further aggravates internal tensions, ignites ethnic rivalries and deepens existing social problems in independent states that should otherwise enjoy the sovereignty and equal say in the international system. The United Nations has absolutely been dominated and eclipsed by the United States during the post September 11, 2001 period. Chapter VI Conclusion There exists a consensus among many states that the United Nations provides the best global forum for discussing general multilateral issues. States gain leverage by using the UN to seek more beneficial outcomes in conflicts. According to the United Nations website, the UN provides international stability; acts as a representative symbol of global identity; provides a forum where states promote their views and present their disputes; and provides mechanisms for conflict resolutions in international security affairs. No single country in this world can sufficiently perform all these roles to the levels that the United Nations does. In numerous circumstances however, the United Nations has been referred to as a â€Å"toothless dog that only barks but cannot bite† due to its continued inability to enforce law and order in international relations. Linda (2003) asserts that despite these accusations, many of the failures of the United Nations occurred as a result of struggles among external forces rather than the organizations own failure (p.74). Linda (2003) cites the competition between the US and Soviet blocs as having been one of the biggest impediments in the UN during the Cold War (p.74). The United States and the Soviet applied their veto powers to block any decisions that were not in their favor. Moreover, the third world countries maximized on the weaknesses created by the Cold War rivalries to pursue their own selfish interests which were focused on economic and social interests. Therefore, the principle of collective security became secondary to other interests that were being pursued by both the developed and developing countries. Linda (2003) acknowledges that without adequate support from member countries, it became impossible for the United Nations to pursue the agenda of collective security (p.76). While the United Nations performed exceptionally well during the post Cold War era, its operations were severely affected by problems of inadequate funding. The organization was particularly affected by non-payment of dues by the United States. The post September 11 period has seen the United Nations being completely overshadowed by the US in the war against terror. Kochler (2002) warns that â€Å"with the US war on terrorism having claimed so many lives right from its inception to date, there is an urgent need for change of tactic† (p. 31). According to Kochler (2002) the United Nations needs to reclaim its rightful position as the global authority vested with powers to enforce peace and sanity in the international system (.p.32). Therefore, there is an urgent need for powerful countries to give the United Nations its due recognition as the world security and peacekeeping body. Countries such as the United States must learn to pursue their interests within the framework of chapter 7 of the United Nations Charter. Kochler (2002) further warns that the arbitrary attacks on other countries without the approval of the Security Council defeat the purpose and spirit of collective security as a whole (p.33). Such attacks and invasions only serve to divide the world even further along ideological, religious and economic lines. In order to achieve sustainable peace and security throughout the world, it must be acknowledged that â€Å"the United Nations does not exist because it has powers to force its will on the world’s states; rather, it exists because states founded it to serve their needs† (Goldstein, 2006, p. 265). The United Nations should no longer be taken for granted. Although the international relations are still characterized by anarchy, the United Nations is the closest form of world government that the international system has ever cherished. Therefore, efforts must be harnessed to give the United Nations due recognition, greater financial capacity and more political powers to act on behalf of states in fostering world security and international relations. Goldstein contends that the United Nations further acts as a leverage for moderating costs of achieving collective security, because UN dues and expenses of diplomatic representatives in addition to the agreement to behave in accordance with the Charter provide a cost effective avenue compared to the costs that individual countries would incur to achieve the same objectives (p.266). While the United Nations can serve as a forum for international cooperation, much can be achieved only if high coincidences of interests occur so that more agreements can be reached and implemented. Considering the fact that member states retain their full sovereignty status, binding decisions require cooperation and consensus rather than majority votes. Furthermore, there is urgent need for an overhaul of the UN structures so as to eliminate the existing power gaps among member states. This follows concerns to the effect that the United Nations gives greater enforcement powers to the Security Council than to other bodies within the organization, yet the Security Council is dominated by the great powers which only pursue interests that are of significance to their nations. Roberts Kingsbury (1994) are categorical that more power should be transferred from the Security Council to the General Assembly where states receive equal recognition and voting rights (p. 134). The Security Council should also be expanded with the objective of distributing power evenly among member states as well within all the organs of the United Nations. Although the main objective that motivated the foundation of the United Nations was the provision of international security through prevention of war, the other services being provided by the organization should never be ignored or pushed to the background. There are many problems which are global in nature that rely on the United Nations. According to Goldstein (2003) globalization has gradually transformed the world into a single economy, thus multinational corporations are relocating from one country to another and building subsidiaries in several other countries† (P.112). Subsequently the world has become more interdependent, with technology having transformed communication to instantaneous levels. All these developments have introduced new challenges and conditions in the international system that no single country can absorb all the pressure presented by such challenges and conditions. These conditions and challenges are presented in the form of population growth, healthcare issues like HIV-AIDS, environmental issues like global warming, drug trafficking and terrorism. Therefore, war should not be the only international dilemma for the United Nations. However, it may be that the United Nations remains too institutionally undeveloped, lacking independent authority and resources, to effectively deal with any of these problems. Reference List Goldstein, J. (2003). International Relations. Pearson Education, Inc., Kochler, H. (2002) International ecumenical conference: The war on terror, its impact on   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   sovereignty of states, and its implications for human rights and civil liberties. Linda, F. (2003). An Insider’s Guide to the UN. Yale University Press. Mesler, S. (1997). United Nations: The First Fifty Years. Atlantic Monthly Press. Pilar P. R. (2001). Terrorism and U.S. Foreign Policy. Washington: Brookings Institution   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Press Roberts, A. Kingsbury, B. (Eds.), (1994). United Nations, Divided World: The UN’s   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Role in International Relations, 2nd Ed The United Nations: Charter of the United Nations. Retrieved from   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://www.un.org/aboutun/charter/index.html/ on 25/03/2008 The United Nations. The United Nations: Organization. Retrieved from   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://www.un.org/aboutun/basicfacts/unorg.htm/ on 25/03/2008 The United Nations. (2006). Report on the committee on contributions. Retrieved from    http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/contributors/N0642856.pdf?OpenDS=A/61/11Lang=E    on 26/05/2008 Weiss G.T. Dhows, S. (Eds.), (2007). The Oxford Handbook on United Nations. Oxford   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   University Press.

Analysis of Saudi Arabias Restaurant Industry

Analysis of Saudi Arabias Restaurant Industry Introduction: In this paper we will discuss the restaurant Industry in Saudi Arabia which is growing faster than anywhere else in the region; it is growing at a pace that is exceeding its infrastructure wwith different range of prices and classes, starting form as low as $1.00 USD and going up to $75.00 USD if youre into fancy restaurants  [1]  . The restaurant industry is very divers and large including: cafes/bars, full-service restaurants, fast food, home delivery and street stalls, all types of restaurants have a wide range of food specialization from ethnic, international, and local. There are also three main types of investors: independent owners, international franchise, and local restaurant chains. A restaurant chain is a set of related restaurants, typically with the same name in many different locations either under shared corporate ownership e.g. Al-Baik and Herfy. Typically, the restaurants within a chain are built to a standard format and offer a standard menu. A franchise is a right granted to an individual or group to market a companys goods or services within a certain territory or location. Some examples of todays popular franchises in Saudi Arabia are McDonalds, Subway, and Dominos Pizza. In order to analyze the attractiveness of the restaurant Industry in Saudi Arabia we will employ three different analytical tools, Porter five forces, assessment of the macro market environment known as (PESTLE Analysis), and SWOT analysis. Based on our analysis we will offer an advice to any new firm considering entering the restaurant industry in Saudi Arabia. PESTLE Analysis The effect of the Saudi politics on the restaurant industry Saudi Arabia is ruled by the family of Al Saud who since the establishment of their kingdom declared that it is ruled by the Islamic law. The Al Saud family also affirmed that they are committed to supporting the economic growth and be part of the developed nations. This goal is very challenging to achieve because fundamentalist Muslims refuse the idea of globalization, this lay a moderate political risk on the regime. On the other hand, this political situation affects the restaurant industry positively because the restaurant industry remains the major uncontested method of entertainment among Saudis. Particularly, by law, all restaurants are required to have single-males section separated from the family section to adhere to the tradition and religious requirements. Moreover, The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is perceived as the leader of the Muslim world, because it is the home town of Makah; which Muslims from all over the world must visit at least once in their life time to complete the fifth pillar of their religion. This makes Saudi Arabia suffers from a tension in its international relationships mainly after the event of 911 because some of the western countries are holding the kingdom partially responsible for 9/11. This political situation is one of the main strength of the restaurant industry in Saudi; with no cinemas or night clubs, eating out becomes the main source of entertainment for most of the population. There is an appetite for new restaurants that exceeds any other region in the world  [2]  . The effect of the Saudi law and Regulation on the restaurant industry The recent ruler of the Saudi Arabia, king Abdullah, is respected internally and internationally for his efforts to fight terrorism and his large amount of public spending on reform plans have helped the country to overcome  [3]  most of its economic obstacles. The kingdoms major step toward reform was the application for membership of the World Trade Organization (WTO) and making consistent legal changes to meet with its requirements, but still there is mistrust from the Privet sectors toward the government, because of the unnecessary bureaucratic practices and inappropriate regulations that are seen as burdensome for the competitive market. Some areas are over regulated while others are under regulated. It takes almost six months to register a company, and the company must give a proof that it has substantial sum of money to invest, not less than $10,000. However, the regulatory changes made in recent years appear to have been of most beneficiaries to those Saudi companies which are seeking to expand through alliances with foreign investors  [4]  . Nevertheless, the law requires foreign investors to have a Saudi partner and the Saudi partner, individual or company, will have the majority of control over the business. Over all, the legal process is very complex and financially risky whether you are opening a small business or a major enterprise. The government should amend these processes to encourage foreign investments. The effects of Saudi economic on the restaurant industry The Kingdom is experiencing accelerated growth due to recent oil price spikes. The positive effect has been a rise in per capita GDP from approximately $8100 (1999) to $9575, or 18%, by 2005. Combine this with the fact that the Kingdom has one of the worlds fastest growing populations (3.5% per year) and you are faced with an expanding market with good disposable income levels. AC Nielsen research reports that the Saudi economy is expected to grow 8.7% this year, mainly fuelled by the high oil prices as well as strong private sector growth  [5]  Saudi remains the largest market in the entire Gulf. Many view Dubai as the showcase but Saudi proves to be the sales room and cash generator. Due to fact that Saudi Arabia is a third world country, it depends on imported goods and technology, the government commitments to the economic expansion creates job opportunities for professional trained foreigners and depend on them to fulfill the countrys ambitious development strategies. According to HSBC Bank Saudi Arabia is classified as the second in the wealth of professional trained foreigners. Saudi Arabia is ranked twenty two among other countries in the tourism sector. Moreover, Saudi Arabia hosts over five million pilgrims yearly from all over the world coming for Hajj and Ummrah. Hajj is one of the five pillars of Islam which all Muslims must perform at least once in their life time. The restaurant industry is one of the major Beneficiaries from such advantage. Therefore, the government has been actively considering to expand what is believed to be billions of dollars worth of income in the tourism sector by attracting international tourists to the Kingdoms historic sites, in the mid-2008, a package of new relaxed visa rules were released allowing many groups from Europe to visit the Kingdom with a group tourist visa, which years before was unheard of. This policy has created a new segment for the Saudi restaurant industry. Also, the large number of foreigners, coming as workers or as tourist and pilgrims, with their ethnic background are considered the back bone for the restaurant industry. The effect the social characteristics on the restaurant industry Tradition and religion encourage Muslims to be hospitable and sociable. Inviting guests and friends to banquet in their home is the norm in Saudi Arabia. In Saudi Arabia Segregation between opposite gender exist in most sectors of public eservices, schools, universities, banks, this segregation unlocked job opportunities for large number of Saudi females. In the last few years it became easier to entertain guests and family to a restaurant for the busy working females or even have the restaurant food and staff to entertain them at home. Dining out became a habit among all social classes in the Kingdom with the lack of other entertainment venues due to religious issues. Therefore the trend of eating out is constantly growing among them.  [6]   This social characteristic will have a blooming and flourishing effect on the restaurant industry in Saudi Arabia where the main entertainment is going out restaurant. Perhaps the most pronounced feature of the demography is its young population where more the 59% are under 24 years of age. And part of the Saudi government or reform is to develop its workforce; to achieve this goal the government sends over one hundred thousand young students to peruse their higher education in highly developed countries every year. These large numbers of young people live abroad for almost five to seven years comes back with food and restaurant likes that they adopted during their scholarship.  [7]  This opened the door widely for international franchise in Saudi Arabia Some of the franchises that are currently present in Saudi Arabia, McDonalds, Hardees, Burger King, Popeye, Chilies, TGI, Fuddruckers, Pizza Hut among many others and are very popular among this young population along with foreign workforce, tourist, and pilgrims. The effect of technology and the environment of the restaurant industry The last of the two macro marketing environment forces are the technological and the environmental: In Saudi Arabia Technology in the restaurant industry is not limited to basic kitchen appliances and tools. However, one may not expect some complex equipments are used in the restaurant industry. Many restaurants are leading the way in regards to credit card processing and point-of-sale technologies, introducing new ways to serve their customers and increase the overall convenience of the dining experience. Of course, restaurants chains and franchise are the main benefactors of this development in communication  [8]   In Saudi Arabia there is no significant awareness from the government or most of the population to the environmental issues. All the restaurants that uses recycle paper or green energy are mostly international franchise applying their Owen corporate policy as part of their responsibility Porters 5 Forces Analysis Threat of New Entrants. The restaurant industry is the easiest to enter basically anyone who can cook, with the minimize capital amount can enter the business. Barriers to enter this industry are mainly in the bureaucratic regulation that might take time but this is not considered a serious barrier. Power of Suppliers. While there are plenty of food supplies, but they depend on imported material because Saudi Arabia is not an agricultural country. The import of food and foodstuffs are estimated to exceed $7 billion annually and the Kingdom remains the leading market in the region. Except for date and milk all other raw materials are imported. There are big numbers of suppliers and prices are controlled by the government. Only international food chains franchise might be obliged to buy its raw material from a certain supplier. Power of Buyers. The balance of power is shifting toward buyers. With so many restaurants the competition is very high. Buyers are always looking for the best quality and price. Going to restaurant is not an essential; people are always ready to try something new. With Variety of products to choose from, local, ethnic, and western couple with intense competition lead buyers seeks lower prices and better services. Disposable income levels and an expanding shopping mall culture are assisting this growth Availability of Substitutes. Substitutes for the restaurant industry in general include alternative form of entertainment like cinemas or night club. The available entertainment substitute is the shopping malls, where people will go shopping, or window shopping. Most fast food chains are showing positive growth and are ever present in all the new shopping malls Competitive Rivalry. Even though there are no figures revealing the size of this lucrative market, a high industry growth rate is intensifying the competitive rivalry the presence of so many available substitutes are a particularly challenging situation for some firms SWOT: Strengths Weaknesses Opportunities Threats The Saudi restaurant industry is weak in economies of scale and labor productivity. Its strength is the ability to attract huge capital and labor with it openness to the world market. The restaurant industry is showing significant growth, on the other hand, this open market has intensified an open competition. The diversified culture of Saudi Arabia is the key to exploit Economies of scope. Also, exploiting the economies of scale is also an opportunity. The consumer preference for differentiated and healthy products is also another opportunity to exploit in enhancing the economies of scope. Although, the anticipated low population growth in the future could be a major threat as it would decrease the quantity of demand coupled with the increase in the retail chain the significant increase in small households and working women will create new opportunities for the restaurant industry. Conclusion and recommendation: In this assignment we carried out an analysis of the restaurant industry competitiveness in Saudi Arabia by employing three different analytical tools, PESTLE Analysis, Porter Five Forces, and SWOT Analysis. Based on our analysis we concluded with the following findings and advices to any new firm considering entering the restaurant industry in Saudi Arabia. The strength of the restaurant industry lies on its ability to attract huge capital and labor with it openness to the world market. The restaurant industry is showing significant growth faster than anywhere in the world. Many factors have contributed to this fast growth as such as the political, economical, and low labor market and other socio-cultural factors. The economical and political outlook for restaurant industry in Saudi Arabia is very encouraging, government shows commitment and support to economic growth which is reflected in its double-digit increase in government expenditures on many aspects that are related to the restaurant business. Furthermore, currently, the government economic plan emphasizes the strengthening the growing private sector business opportunities with focus on increasing the national and foreign investments as public spending has increased by 15.8% the government has increased the budget for new projects by 36%. One of the most promising aspects for the restaurant industry is the social changes in Saudi Arabia. For example, the role of females in the social and economic life is dramatically changing as women are now allowed to enter the work force and have huge impact on the purchasing power and certainly a change in womens lifestyle that is favorable to the restaurant industry. On the other hand, the legal process in Saudi is very complex and financially risky whether you are opening a small business or a major enterprise. The government should amend these processes to encourage further foreign investments. Also, the Saudi restaurant industry is weak in economies of scale and labor productivity. Based on the above findings, we strongly recommend and encourage any firm to enter the Saudi market keeping in mind the following points: The restaurant industry is highly competitive in terms of price, service, location, and food quality and is affected by changes in consumer trends, economic conditions, demographics, traffic patterns, and concerns about the nutritional content of foods. shifting dietary preferences among consumers in favor of alternative foods can open the doors for niche market The growth of the restaurant industry is expected to generally stay the same over the next few years and it can be considered a blue ocean. The restaurant industry is affected greatly by globalization and it will continue to be.

Social Criticism Contained In Fahrenheit English Literature Essay

Social Criticism Contained In Fahrenheit English Literature Essay I was walking and talking with a writer friend [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦], when a police car pulled up and an officer stepped out to ask what we were doing. Putting one foot in front of the other, I said [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦]. That was the wrong answer. The policeman repeated his question. [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] I replied, Breathing the air, talking, conversing, walking [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦], its illogical, youre stopping us. If we had wanted to [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] rob a shop, we would have driven up in a car [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦]. As you see, we have only our feet. Walking, eh?, said the officer [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] dont do it again! (Bradbury 1993, p.57) This encounter was the inspiration for a young Bradbury, who earned his living selling short stories, to write his novella The Fireman. But due to the tense political situation in America he had problems to make this story public. Nevertheless, an avant-garde publisher was delighted by the story and wanted to print it, upon condition that its author expanded it to a novel. At first, Bradbury doubted whether he could fulfill that, but finally, in 1953, he completed the novel Fahrenheit 451  [1]  with great enthusiasm for he stated that I did not write Fahrenheit 451 it wrote me (Bradbury 1993, p.58). However, as Bradbury criticizes the political climate in the U.S., difficulties emerged again to find a publisher, who would print portions of Fahrenheit. Fortunately, a Chicago editor bought his manuscript to release it in three issues of his new magazine. It turned out that the young editor was Hugh Hefner, the publisher of Playboy. This troublesome publication history of Fahrenheit markedly reflects the content of the novel because it is set in a world, where critical or dissident individuals are oppressed. Analogously, political resistance caused difficulties for Bradbury to level criticism against American society in his novel. On these grounds, this paper examines in which respects the topics of Fahrenheit contain criticism of society and how the fictional story refers to the sociopolitical circumstances of the 1950s in America. 2. Criticism of society in Ray Bradburys Fahrenheit 451 Within the main motives of the novel, Bradbury incorporated criticism of society. So, in the following, the socio-critical implications of the topics entertainment, technology, censorship and book burning will be carved out. 2.1 Entertainment Entertainment plays an important role in Fahrenheit since it is employed to manipulate society. It is ubiquitous in any situation so that everyday life of the citizens is characterized by steady diversion. For instance, tiny Seashell Radio receivers are conceived as electronic equipment to fob minor news and toneless music off on the population. Mildred the protagonists wife and a generic representative of society even wears the Seashells while sleeping so she is completely captivated by the governments propaganda. Moreover, in every living room, huge walls are installed which resemble a standard TV but span over several walls and broadcast three-dimensional footage. People watching these programs consider the actors to be familiar persons as they are able to interact with them. Mildred is strongly influenced by this entertainment medium since she is looking forward to reading out some missing lines in a scene, which have been mailed to her for participating in the program. Thus, s he feels satisfied as all look at [her] out of the three walls and [she] say[s] the lines (Bradbury 1953, p.23). As the two statements I think thats fine and I sure do (ibid) are the lines she has to read, Mildred subconsciously indicate[s] her agreement with what is being said (Booker, p.88). Furthermore, omnipresent advertisements like two-hundred-foot-long billboards in the streets or the train radio prevent people from thinking by directing their attention toward repetitious slogans. In order to visit his confederate Faber, Montag goes by subway where he suddenly starts to scream Shut up, shut up, shut up (Bradbury 1953, p.73) when hearing a dentifrice advertisement, whereas the other passengers are tapping their feet to the rhythm of Denhams Dentifrice, Denhams Dandy Dental Detergent, [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] faintly twitching the words Dentifrice Dentifrice Dentifrice (ibid). Other devices that illustrate the biasing impact of entertainment in the novel are joke-boxes that repeat the same jokes most of the time (Bradbury 1953, p.32) and music walls in cafes on which colored patters [are] running up and down (ibid). Through the perpetual influence of the media, emotions and own thoughts are debarred from the public and also intellectualism and curiosity are repressed. Hence, the propaganda spread in the media maliciously deceives the citizens so that they are under the illusion [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦of] hav[ing] a part in determining that ideology (Booker, p. 88), although it is obvious that the opportunity for creativity is dulled (ibid) severely by the government. Even though the citizens are not compelled to adapt their selves to the state dogma, they do not revolt because they are manipulated by the anti-intellectualism spread in the media. Booker refers to this as a brainwash [of the] audience into conformist behavior (ibid). This attitude of the figures in Fahrenheit might be traced back to Bradburys biographical background because, during the Cold-War era, the dominance of mass media and entertainment increased immensely. On that score, American officials were convinced that if people could be persuaded that what they were getting was what they wanted increasingly simple and sensational entertainment, information reduced to headlines [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] then they could be controlled (Charles, p. 13). Such control is also exercised at school since the educational system described in Fahrenheit heavily relies on mass media and sports to prevent critical discussions. For instance, Clarisse reports Montag on her school life in which she has to attend sports lessons like basketball or running as well as TV-classes, where they just run the answers at you, bing, bing, bing (Bradbury 1953, p.31). Correspondingly, Zipes argues that, in Fahrenheit, schooling serves to exhaust the young so that they are tame, but the frustration felt by the young is then expressed in their fun outside school, which always turns into violence (p.7). The literary conception of media consumption habits in Fahrenheit reflects Bradburys critical opinion concerning the role of television in society. Since the early days of television in the 1950s, new media has been crowding out traditional reading as a popular form of entertainment. Thus, in the face of the pupils declining reading ability, schools abandoned text-based teaching methods and increasingly used television in classrooms. This development is seized in Montags America, where entertainment, especially television, stupef[ies] the populace by saturating their minds with useless information (Booker, p.88). Consequently, the educational system in Fahrenheit tends to cram [the pupils] so full of non-combustible data, chock them so full of facts they feel stuffed, but absolutely brilliant with information [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦]. Dont give them any slippery stuff like philosophy or sociology to tie things up with (Bradbury 1953, p. 57f.). Bradbury wants to show the repercussions of excessive entertainment by describing a world in which people lose personal contacts and nearly bear no relation to reality so that the government can manipulate the populace without any restraint. In this regard, the problem of alienation and loneliness caused by the permanent distraction of the media is not really with the system, but with the people (Booker, p.89) who are forced into line subconsciously because of the propaganda broadcasted all the time. Accordingly, Beatty states that any man who can take a TV wall apart and put it back together again [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] is happier than any man who tries to [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] equate the universe, which just wont be [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] equated without making man feel bestial and lonely (Bradbury 1953, p. 58). 2.2 Technology Media does not form the only highly developed issue in Fahrenheit. Besides, the topic of technology is of importance. Although technology closely relates to entertainment in some respect, it must be considered a separate aspect that stands out due to several futuristic elements. Science in general is on a high level in Fahrenheit since houses are built out of a fireproof material, subways run under the city and banks are open all night due to robot tellers in attendance. Besides that, sundry science-fiction inventions prevail in Bradburys novel, such as the Mechanical Hound. It is an electronic animal that injects morphine into someones leg and is employed to seek out a person who is wanted by firemen. What distinguishes it is that Montag wonders whether it is alive or not. Correspondingly, the Mechanical Hound is referred to as the dead beast, the living beast (Bradbury 1953, p.26). Montag flees the Mechanical Hound after his house has been burnt and he has killed Beatty. The pursuit is broadcasted on TV and as Montag can escape, the footage shows the death of another person, who is pretended as him. By that, the propaganda aims to prove society that rebels have no chance to protest and get killed in case they take flight. According to Zipes, the Mechanical Hound represents all the imaginative technological skills of American society transformed into a ruthless monster and [is] used to obliterate dissenting humanity (p.9). As Bradburys novel can be seen as a reflection of the 1950s in America, the Mechanical Hound takes up the fear of robots during this time. In the 1940s, the first robots were built after the invention of the computer by Zuse in 1941. Subsequently, they became a popular concept during the late 1950s and early 1960s, when automated machines were first used to support factory operators. Nevertheless, many Americans feared the nature of robots and were afraid that they might take control over human beings. Referring to this anxiety, Bradbury arouses criticism on the fast pace in which technologies have developed so that people lose control about the way their lives are determined by new electronic equipment. In Fahrenheit, a computer system [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] keep[s] track of each and every citizen (Zipes, p.8) to ensure that everybody behaves in a politically correct way and does not develop an own opinion. In Bradburys novel, technology [is also à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] used in the field of medicine to deaden the senses while keeping people alive as machines (Zipes, p.6). For example, Mildred is treated by two men with two machines after taking an overdose of sleeping pills. One machine slides into her stomach like a black cobra down an echoing well (Bradbury 1953, p.18) and pulls out all the content. The second machine pump[s] all of the blood from the body and replace[s] it with fresh blood and serum (ibid). As this process of revival is very versed, Montag asks the operators how often they use these machines. It turns out that every night they are employed for at least nine times. Carrying someone elses blood is an extraordinary perception for Montag so he is shocked at hearing that so many people take an overdose and must be rescued by blood transfusion. Another way of using technology can be spotted in the communication between Montag and his mentor Faber, who has built a bullet that enables a permanent contact between them. It is a tiny device that cannot be observed since it is placed in the ear and resembles a Seashell Radio. Due to this invention, Faber can counsel Montag on his reactions and answers in every precarious situation that is brought by the fact that Montag owns books. So here technology is employed to [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] emancipatory and humanistic interests (Zipes, p.7). Throughout the entire novel, war is omnipresent. Radio broadcasts wrong information about current attacks or force-levels and warns that war can erupt at any moment even though jet bombers are flying above the city several times a day. The populace in Fahrenheit started and won two atomic wars (Bradbury 1953, p. 68) and a third one destroys the city at the end of the novel. By that, Bradbury wants to criticize the rapid nuclear arms race during the Cold War (Zipes, p.7), after seeing the consequences of the bombings in Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945. The Cold-War era lasted from 1947 until 1991 and was characterized by a constant political tension between the Soviet Union and the Western world (Greiner). This tense situation was attributable to the strong dichotomy of political ideologies and the fear that this conflict could escalate and lead into a nuclear war was very widespread, particularly in the United States. A historical event that affected Bradbury in this context was the K orean War from 1950 until 1953. It was a proxy war between the Eastern and the Western Block in which the U.N supported the Republic of Korea, whereas the Peoples Republic of Korea achieved assistance by the Soviet Union (Hickey). 2.3 Limitation of fundamental rights Despite the fact that governmental activities are not described in detail, their impact on society and daily life is apparent in regard to manifest restraints: In Fahrenheit, the freedoms of information, expression and press are severely restricted. For instance, the people acting in the novel are not informed about the true situation concerning the atomic war because government deludes them through its censorship. This delusion has far-reaching consequences, namely the destruction of the city by an atomic bomb at the end of the story since propaganda has hindered individuals to foresee their imminent destruction (Bradbury 1953, p.140). Similar to the government in Fahrenheit, the Office of Censorship heavily censored reporting on warfare during the Second World War. At that, information which could be useful for the opponent should not be broadcasted neither on TV nor radio. In this connection, the office was also responsible for concealing the existence of atomic bombs so the American population did not know about them before the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki (Hanyok). The parallel between history and the fiction in Fahrenheit continues in the 1950s with respect to the delusion about weapons of war. Thereby, the stifling atmosphere delineated in the novel comments on the intellectually oppressive climate in America. Although the Bill of Rights guarantees all Americans the freedoms of speech and press as a constitutional right, censorship was at these times allowed and enforced by the United States government (Bruck, p.10). By means of prior restraint, which was considered a de-facto-censorship, government could injure First Amendment rights and control the publishing of unwelcome ideas (Pfister, p.141 f.). For example, in 1950, the magazine Scientific America was forced to censor an article about a Hydrogen-bomb. The magazines publisher argued that only facts, which have been public before, were part of the article and that only a few lines referred to construction details of the bomb. Moreover, he brought forward the argument that the Americans ne eded this information in order to form an intelligent judgment. Nevertheless, Scientific America was constrained to publish a redacted version of the article and had to destroy the original run of the issue (Swanberg). In addition, further measures of censorship and infringement are briefly worded in the novel. In order to prevent people from communicating, the government eliminated the porches from all houses (Bradbury 1953, p.59) and closed all Liberal Arts Colleges (Bradbury 1953, p.69). Heretofore, this paper analyzed the methods with which the government in Fahrenheit brings the population into line. Hence, the treatment of those, who do not adapt to this enforced conformity, will be examined. On the one hand there are individuals, who do not adapt their selves to the rules, like Clarisse McClellan. She likes asking questions and deliberating about everything. Even her hobbies going hiking in the mountains, bird watching and collecting butterflies (Bradbury 1953, p.25) are very suspicious because it is exceptional that someone is interested in something that has nothing to do with media. Owing to her unadjusted personality, Clarisse has to see a psychiatrist who should investigate why she is rather doing things on her own than participating in car races with her friends (Bradbury 1953, p. 25). Despite her chatty attitude, Clarisse is considered to be antisocial, treated like a stranger and excluded from society. On the other hand, those who offensively defy the system are punished immediately. As soon as the firemen are informed about somebody who owns books, they march out to burn the books together with the persons home. Thereupon, convicted book owners are sent to the asylum (Bradbury 1953, p.34). In order to avoid the menacing exile, critics set up a hidden camp on a deserted riverside (Bradbury 1953, p.130). Viewed in this light, people who deviate from what is normal place themselves outside the protection of society (Charles, p.13). In Fahrenheit, Bradbury depicts an atmosphere of insecurity and lack of faith between the characters. Dissident individuals have to live in constant scare of denunciation and ban. As an example, Mildred betrays Montag to the firemen on account of the fact that he owns books (Bradbury 1953, p. 103). This practice of political condemnation relates to the atmosphere in the United States during the late 40s and early 50s. Several evolutions of the Cold War, such as the detonation of an atomic bomb by the Soviets in 1949, led to an increasing anti-Communist hysteria in America. Reflecting the decreasing faith within society, the House Committee on Un-American Activities (HUAC) set itself to purify America of any Communistic activities in the course of the Second Red Scare. For example, in 1947, the HUAC inquired whether a group of Hollywood screenwriters called the Hollywood Ten supported Communist propaganda. The accused, mainly directors, radio commentators and actors, were blacklisted and boycotted by their studios. These proceedings led to the social isolation of the artists so that they did not succeed in finding new jobs (Emmons, p.xviii; Georgakas). A further wave of Communist persecution in the U.S. went down in history as McCarthyism. In 1950, Senator Joseph McCarthy delivered a speech in which he asserted that the State Department wittingly employed communists. This speech made McCarthy nationally famous and is considered to be the opening act of a long-lasting period of Communist repression. Americans were able to watch Senate hearings on TV in which McCarthy exposed alleged Communists. These public inquiries created an atmosphere of fear and mistrust that left many Americans unsure, whether to confide in their neighbors, public officials or media figures (Emmons, p.xxi). 2.4 Book burning The hardest sanction of censorship in Fahrenheit is the ban of all books. Owning books is a capital offence that is cursed with burning the books and arresting their readers (Bradbury 1953, p.34). The high relevance of this aspect is already suggested by the title of Bradburys main work: Fahrenheit 451 is the exact temperature at which book paper catches fire. On top of that, it is a striking feature that, in the novel, the firemens job is to burn books instead of slacking a fire (Bradbury 1953, p.9). In Fahrenheit, book burning is propagandistically justified by technology, mass exploitation and minority pressure (Bradbury 1953, p.54). More precisely, captain Beatty reports that book burning started when modern technologies like photography, radio and television were invented and displaced books (Bradbury 1953, p.51). Furthermore, he blames the huge population to be a factor which caused the book burnings. He argues that the bigger a population is, the bigger the minorities are. Consequently, authors had to stop dealing with controversial issues in order not to offend any minority group. Beyond that, an important reason for books to be excluded from society is that they are considered to cause unhappiness. Propaganda declares that people could not deal with literature without being unhappy or feeling lonely (Bradbury 1953, p.57). In his essay Burning Bright, Bradbury points out that he related the motive of book burning in Fahrenheit to historical events, particularly to the book burnings that had been carried out by the Nazis during the 1930s and 1940s (Bradbury 1993, p.58). At that time, books of Jewish and degenerated artists were first blacklisted and then burnt (Lischeid, p.105f.). On May 10, 1933 more than 25,000 books were burnt by German students because the German Student Associations Main Office for Press and Propaganda proclaimed a nationwide Action against the Un-German Spirit (United States Holocaust Memorial Museum). Especially works by Sigmund Freud, Thomas Mann, Heinrich Heine, Karl Marx, H.G. Wells and Erich Maria Remarque affected (Charles, p14) since they were considered a threat to the state-enforced conformity (United States Holocaust Memorial Museum). In this point, the Nazi book burnings resemble the ones in Fahrenheit because, in both cases, the motivation of destroying books is to for cefully maintain an idea of man that is predefined by ideology. Where they burn books, they will end in burning human beings, Heinrich Heine wrote in 1821, one century before the Third Reich. History has proved this to be a true prediction (Charles, p.15): First the Nazis burnt Jewish and degenerate books and later they started to burn Un-German individuals in concentrations camps. In Fahrenheit, a parallel to this development can be perceived. An old book-owning woman is burnt alive for she refuses to leave her house when firemen arrive to set her house on fire (Bradbury 1953, p.38f.). Montag is the only one who exhibits a guilty conscience about burning a woman alive and starts wondering about the books distinctiveness and the reasons why you might die for them. By using the book burning motive Bradbury criticizes the hard means which are applied to control the thoughts of the citizens as well as the locking up individuals who do not adapt to the common rules (Bradbury 1953, p.34). But in the end of the novel, the authors outlook is not solely hopeless. When the city is destroyed, the book lovers are the only ones who survive so it is up to them to rebuild a civilization that neither persecutes intellectuals nor infringes personal freedoms. 3. Conclusion Since Bradburys novel is more than 50 years old today, the question, whether its social criticism is still valid today, emerges. To start with, the futuristic media described in Fahrenheit envisioned the popularity of headset radios, [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] interactive TV and live new broadcasts (Bruck, p.58) that are in style today. But for the main part of his novel, Bradbury intended to put a critical focus on entertainment and the resulting alienation within society. In this context, the currently discussed effects of excessive media consumption are comparable to those described in Fahrenheit. For example, persons who are addicted to computer games give up all their personal contacts. Connected with the media, the novel also addresses the manipulative use of it that persists down to the present day. For instance, advertising still tries to influence people and most of them are not aware of it. Another point of Bradburys media criticism refers to the use of television in classes and the lacking education of adolescents. As most of the young people today rather use modern media in their leisure than spending their time reading books, Bradbury was right in foreseeing that the reading levels will drop. However, concerning the fear of the nuclear arms race during the Cold War, the social criticism in Fahrenheit is not up to date anymore. Cold War ended in 1990 and the U.N. pursues a disarmament policy to reduce the number of high tech weapons. But what is frightening about those weapons today is the question to which extent they would pose a threat to mankind if they fell into the hands of terrorists. In his novel, Bradbury also criticized the infringement of the expression of opinion as he envisioned a world where dissident individuals were punished. Today, such an oppressive climate still prevails in North Korea and other totalitarian regimes that enforce censorship. But in America, everybody is free to say what she is thinking. The book burnings mentioned in the novel represent a strong measure of governmental censorship, whereas in modern-day America, the American Library Association promotes intellectual freedom (American Library Association). But nevertheless, some scandalous books are still banned from schools and public libraries So all in all, the social criticism contained in Fahrenheit is still valid today to a large extent.